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- The script tag
The <script> tag is what we use to includes our JavaScript. It's a lot like the <link> tag you've already been using to include your CSS files.
Here's a very basic snippet of JavaScript using the script tag. This JavaScript is written directly into our HTML page. It will call and alert box as soon as the page loads.
<script type="text/javascript">
alert("This alert box was called with the onload event");
</script>When using the script tag, we must always use the attribute name and value of type="text/javascript".
- Using the script tag to include an external JavaScript file
To include an external JavaScript file, we can use the script tag with the attribute src. The value for the src attribute should be the path to your JavaScript file.
In both above ways, generally, JavaScript code can go inside of the document <head> section in order to keep them contained and out of the main content of your HTML document.
However, if your script needs to run at a certain point within a page’s layout, like when using document.write to generate content, you should put it at the point where it should be called, usually within the <body> section.
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Strings can also be compared with greater than (
>) or lower/smaller than (<) operators.JavaScript compares strings based on standard lexicographical ordering, using Unicode values. That means that
bis greater thanafor instance.JavaScript always looks at the first character and only considers other characters if the first character is similar. In addition, capital characters are considered to be smaller than lowercase characters.
'ab' > 'aa' // true 'a' > 'B' // true 'a' > 'b' // false
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Beware When Comparing Objects & Arrays for Equality.
let obj1 = {name: 'XYZ'}; let obj2 = {name: 'XYZ'}; console.log(obj1 == obj2); // false console.log(obj1 === obj2) // false let arr1 = ['hello', 'world'] let arr2 = ['hello', 'world'] console.log(arr1 == arr2); // false console.log(arr1 === arr2) // false
Object and Arrays, both are of type
objectand objects are not compared based on their values but based on the references of the variables. Hence, equality does not work similar to other data types.
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There are eight basic data types in JavaScript. They are:
| Data Types | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
String |
represents textual data | 'hello', 'hello World' etc |
Number |
an integer or a floating-point number | 3, 3.234, 3e-2 etc |
BigInt |
an integer with arbitrary precision | 900719925124740999n, 1n etc |
Boolean |
Any of two values: true or false | true and false |
undefined |
a data type whose variable is not initialized | let a; |
null |
denotes a null value |
let a = null; |
Symbol |
data type whose instances are unique and immutable | let value = Symbol('hello'); |
Object |
key-value pairs of collection of data | let student = {}; |
-
The Object data type (non-primitive type) can store collections of data, whereas primitive data type can only store a single data.
-
Here, all data types except Object are primitive data types, whereas Object is non-primitive.
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There is a difference between writing correct code (i.e. avoiding syntax errors) and writing readable, properly formatted code.
Here's a syntax error example:
function greetUser {
alert('Hi there!');
}What's the problem?
This function has no parameter list (the ()), it should be:
function greetUser() {
alert('Hi there!');
}Writing readable code along with correct syntax is equally important. Take this as an example:
function greetUser() {alert('Hi there!');}This would be a valid code snippet!
Whitespace, line breaks and indentation are all totally optional! Not required!
But of course this version of the code is more readable:
function greetUser() {
alert('Hi there!');
}The same goes for variable definitions:
let userName='Max';would be valid. And of course you can also read it. But,
let userName = 'Max';is simply a bit more readable. It makes it easier to see where the variable name ends and the value starts.
So in general, whitespace, adding a line break and indentation is optional as long as you don't create syntax errors by omitting it - e.g. functiongreet(){} would be wrong since the function keyword can now no longer be identified.
You can also structure longer expressions across multiple lines to make them more readable, for example:
let someResult = 5 + 10 - 3 + 22 - 10000 + 5.344 * 1200;could be written as:
let someResult = 5 + 10 - 3 +
22 - 10000 + 5.344 *
1200;The same goes for long string concatenations:
let someLongString = 'Hi, this is going to be a bit longer, ' +
'so maybe split it across multiple lines by ' +
'concatenating multiple strings!';This would not be valid, it would be a syntax error:
let someLongString = 'Hi, this is going to be a bit longer,
so maybe split it across multiple lines by
concatenating multiple strings!';Why? Because JavaScript can't find the end of the string in the first line - and it doesn't look in the other lines. Strings always have to be in one line (or split into multiple strings, concatenated via +).
What about semi-colons?
Generally, you should place them after every expression you wrote. The exception are functions and similar code snippets where you use {} (exception from that rule: objects!).
Adding a semi-colon after a function wouldn't be a problem, you wouldn't get an error. But it's a common practice to NOT add semi-colons there.
In JavaScript, a function is a block of code that performs a specific task and can be called or invoked from elsewhere in the code. Functions are a fundamental building block of the language and are used extensively to create reusable code and modularize large programs.
In JavaScript, functions can be declared in two ways:
- Function Declarations: This is the traditional way to define a function, using the
functionkeyword followed by a name, a set of parameters in parentheses, and a function body in curly braces. For example:
function myFunction(param1, param2) {
// Function body
return param1 + param2;
}- Function Expressions: This is a newer way to define a function, which involves assigning a function to a variable or a property of an object. Function expressions are often used to create anonymous functions, which can be passed as arguments to other functions. For example:
let myFunction = function(param1, param2) {
// Function body
return param1 + param2;
};Functions can also have optional parameters, which are specified in the function declaration and can be used to provide default values or handle variable numbers of arguments. For example:
function myFunction(param1, param2, optionalParam) {
if (typeof optionalParam === "undefined") {
optionalParam = "default value";
}
// Function body
return param1 + param2 + optionalParam;
}
myFunction(1, 2); // Output: "3default value"
myFunction(1, 2, "custom value"); // Output: "3custom value"Functions can return values using the return statement, which stops the function execution and passes a value back to the caller. Functions can also access variables outside their own scope, through closures. This is a powerful feature that allows functions to maintain state and create private variables.
Finally, JavaScript supports higher-order functions, which are functions that take other functions as arguments or return functions as values. Higher-order functions are a key feature of functional programming and are often used to create flexible and reusable code.
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You learned about local ("function-internal") variables and global variables. What happens if you have this code?
let userName = 'Max';
function greetUser(name) {
let userName = name;
alert(userName);
}
userName = 'Manu';
greetUser('Max');This will actually show an alert that says Max (NOT Manu).
You might've expected that an error gets thrown because we use and declare userName more than once, and as you learned, that is not allowed.
It indeed is not allowed on the same level in the same scope. So this would fail:
let userName = 'Max';
let userName = 'Manu';Why does it work in the first code snippet though?
Because we first create a global variable userName via
let userName = 'Max';But then we never re-declare that on the global level (that would not be allowed). We only declare another variable inside of the function. But since variables in functions get their own scope, JavaScript does something which is called "shadowing".
It creates a new variable on a different scope, this variables does not overwrite or remove the global variable by the way, both co-exist.
When referring to userName inside of the greetUser function we now always refer to the local, shadowed variable. Only if no such local variable existed, JavaScript would fall back to the global variable.
It can be confusing to see that there seem to be two ways of executing a function:
function add() {
something = someNum + someOtherNum;
}add() vs add
It's important to understand why we have these "two ways"!
In general, you call a function that you defined by using its name (e.g. add) and adding parentheses (with any parameters the function might need, or empty parentheses if no parameters are required like in the above example).
add()This is how you execute a function from your code. Whenever JavaScript encounters this statement, it goes ahead and runs the code in the function. Period!
Sometimes however, you don't want to execute the function immediately. You rather want to "tell JavaScript" that it should execute a certain function at some point in the future (e.g. when some event occurs).
That's when you don't directly call the function but when you instead just provide JavaScript with the name of the function.
someButton.addEventListener('click', add);This snippet would tell JavaScript: "Hey, when the button is clicked, go ahead and execute add.".
someButton.addEventListener('click', add());Now, above would be wrong. Why?
Because JavaScript would encounter that line when it parses/executes your script and register the event listener and immediately execute add, because you added parentheses, that means (see above): "Please execute that function!".
Just writing add somewhere in your code would do nothing by the way:
let someVar = 5;
add
alert('Do something else...');Why?
Because you just throw the name of the function in there but you don't give any other information to JavaScript. It basically doesn't know what to do with that name ("Should I run that when a click occurs? After a certain amount of time? I don't know...") and hence JavaScript kind of ignores this statement.
In JavaScript, an array is a data structure that allows you to store and manipulate a collection of values, such as numbers, strings, objects, or other arrays. Arrays are an essential part of the language and are used extensively to represent lists, sets, queues, and other data structures.
In JavaScript, arrays are created using square brackets [] and can contain any number of elements, separated by commas. For example:
const myArray = [1, 2, "three", { key: "value" }];Arrays are 0-indexed, which means that the first element is at index 0, the second element is at index 1, and so on. You can access an element in an array using its index, like this:
const myArray = [1, 2, 3];
console.log(myArray[0]); // Output: 1
console.log(myArray[1]); // Output: 2
console.log(myArray[2]); // Output: 3You can also modify an element in an array by assigning a new value to its index:
let myArray = [1, 2, 3];
myArray[1] = "two";
console.log(myArray); // Output: [1, "two", 3]Arrays have a number of built-in methods that allow you to manipulate them in various ways. Here are some examples:
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pushadds one or more elements to the end of an array:let myArray = [1, 2, 3]; myArray.push(4, 5); console.log(myArray); // Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
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popremoves and returns the last element of an array:let myArray = [1, 2, 3]; let lastElement = myArray.pop(); console.log(lastElement); // Output: 3 console.log(myArray); // Output: [1, 2]
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concatcombines two or more arrays into a new array:let array1 = [1, 2, 3]; let array2 = ["four", "five"]; let combinedArray = array1.concat(array2); console.log(combinedArray); // Output: [1, 2, 3, "four", "five"]
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sortsorts the elements of an array in place:let myArray = [3, 1, 4, 2]; myArray.sort(); console.log(myArray); // Output: [1, 2, 3, 4]
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mapcreates a new array by applying a function to each element of an existing array:let myArray = [1, 2, 3]; let squaredArray = myArray.map(function (x) { return x * x; }); console.log(squaredArray); // Output: [1, 4, 9]
These are just a few examples of the many array methods available in JavaScript. Arrays are a versatile and powerful data structure that can help you write clean and efficient code.
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| Write Code Efficiently | Find Help | Debug Your Code |
|---|---|---|
| Work in a productive environment (i.e. IDE, editor) | Use MDN | An error message! Don't panic instead read and utilize error messages |
| Auto-format code & use shortcuts | Learn how to google (seriously!) | Use console.log() to gain insights into your code (flow) |
| Use auto-completion and hints | Ask proper questions, help others | Use the (Chrome) debugging tools |
| Explore extensions & settings | Trial & Error | Use your IDEs debugging capabilities |
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ES5 (ECMAScript 5) and ES6 (ECMAScript 2015) are two different versions of the ECMAScript specification that define the syntax and behavior of JavaScript. ES6 is a newer version that introduced several significant changes to the language compared to ES5.
Here are some of the key differences between ES5 and ES6:
-
Syntax: ES6 introduced new syntax features such as arrow functions, template literals, and the spread operator, which make it easier and more concise to write code.
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let and const: In ES5, the only way to declare variables was with the var keyword. In ES6, the let and const keywords were introduced, which offer more fine-grained control over variable scoping and immutability.
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Classes: ES6 introduced a new syntax for defining classes in JavaScript, which is similar to class definitions in other object-oriented programming languages.
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Modules: ES6 introduced a standardized module system for JavaScript, which makes it easier to organize and reuse code across different files.
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Promises: ES6 introduced the Promise object, which provides a standardized way of handling asynchronous operations in JavaScript.
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Default function parameters: ES6 allows developers to define default values for function parameters, which makes it easier to write more robust and flexible functions.
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Destructuring: ES6 introduced a new syntax for destructuring objects and arrays, which makes it easier to extract values from complex data structures.
Overall, ES6 introduced several significant changes to the language that make it more powerful and easier to use, especially for larger and more complex projects. However, because ES6 is a newer version, not all browsers and environments fully support its features, so it may be necessary to use tools like Babel to transpile ES6 code to ES5 for broader compatibility.
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In JavaScript, var, let, and const are used to declare variables, but they have some differences in their behavior.
var is the oldest way of declaring variables in JavaScript. It has function scope and hoisting, which means that a var variable declared inside a function is only accessible within that function, and it can be declared after it's used in the code.
let and const were introduced in ECMAScript 6 (ES6) and have block scope, which means that a let or const variable declared inside a block (a pair of curly braces) is only accessible within that block. They do not have hoisting, which means that they need to be declared before they are used in the code.
The main difference between let and const is that let can be reassigned a new value, while const cannot be reassigned. This means that const should be used when you want to declare a variable that will never be reassigned. However, note that for objects and arrays declared with const, you can still modify their properties or elements.
// var example
function varExample() {
var x = 10;
if (true) {
var x = 20;
console.log(x); // Output: 20
}
console.log(x); // Output: 20
}
// let example
function letExample() {
let x = 10;
if (true) {
let x = 20;
console.log(x); // Output: 20
}
console.log(x); // Output: 10
}
// const example
function constExample() {
const x = 10;
// x = 20; // Error: Assignment to constant variable.
const person = { name: 'John', age: 30 };
person.age = 31; // This is allowed
console.log(person); // Output: { name: 'John', age: 31 }
}Readings:
Hoisting is a JavaScript mechanism that moves variable and function declarations to the top of their scope, before the code is executed. This means that regardless of where the declarations are in the code, they are processed first and become available to the rest of the code in that scope.
In the case of function declarations, the entire function is hoisted, including its body. This means that you can call the function before it is declared in the code, like this:
myFunction(); // This works because myFunction is hoisted
function myFunction() {
console.log("Hello world!");
}In the case of variable declarations, only the variable name is hoisted, not its value. This means that if you try to access the variable before it is declared, it will have a value of undefined. For example:
console.log(x); // Output: undefined
var x = 10;In the above code, the variable x is declared with var after it is used in the console.log statement. However, because of hoisting, the variable name x is hoisted to the top of the scope, and its value is undefined until it is assigned the value 10.
It's important to note that only declarations are hoisted, not initializations. So, in the following code, only the variable declaration is hoisted, but the assignment is not:
console.log(x); // Output: undefined
var x; // Declaration is hoisted
x = 10; // Initialization is not hoistedTo avoid confusion and improve code readability, it's generally recommended to declare variables and functions at the beginning of the scope where they are used, instead of relying on hoisting.
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Strict mode is a feature in JavaScript that allows you to opt in to a stricter, more secure version of the language. When you enable strict mode, the JavaScript interpreter enforces a set of rules that help prevent common errors and discourage bad coding practices.
To enable strict mode, you need to add the string "use strict" at the beginning of your JavaScript file or function. For example:
"use strict";
function myFunction() {
// Code in strict mode
}Here are some of the key features of strict mode:
-
Strict mode eliminates some silent errors that can occur in normal JavaScript, such as accidental creation of global variables and duplicate function parameters.
-
Strict mode makes it easier to write "secure" JavaScript, by disallowing the use of certain dangerous features, such as
evalandwith. -
Strict mode changes the behavior of some built-in features in JavaScript. For example, in strict mode, assigning a value to a non-writable property or a getter-only property will throw a TypeError.
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Strict mode changes the behavior of
thisinside functions. In normal JavaScript, the value ofthisinside a function depends on how the function is called. In strict mode, if a function is called without an object context,thiswill beundefinedinstead of the global object.
Here's an example of how strict mode can help prevent errors:
"use strict";
function myFunction() {
x = 10; // Error: variable x is not declared
}
myFunction();In the above code, x is assigned a value without being declared with var, let, or const. In normal JavaScript, this would create a global variable, which can be a source of bugs and security vulnerabilities. In strict mode, however, this code will throw an error, making the mistake more visible and preventing unintended side effects.
Overall, strict mode is a useful feature in JavaScript that can help you write more secure and reliable code.
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JavaScript (JS) is generally considered to be an interpreted language, although it uses a combination of interpretation and just-in-time(JIT) compilation to execute code.
When JavaScript code is executed, the browser or JavaScript engine reads the source code and directly interprets it to execute the instructions. However, some modern JavaScript engines use JIT compilation, which compiles the code on-the-fly as it is being interpreted, which can improve performance.
So in summary, JavaScript is primarily an interpreted language, but it can also use JIT compilation to optimize code execution.
Above image shows how modern JS perform JIT compilation. Firstly, raw JavaScript file goes into the Parser.
Parser: It checks for syntax and semantics. Parser is nothing but a lexical analysis that results into the breaking of code into tokens in order to understand their meanings and these tokens gets converted into Abstract Syntax Tree(AST).
Abstract Syntax tree: It is a hierarchical tree like structure of program representation which allows compiler to understand the program.
Compilation: Generated AST is now get complied and corresponding machine code is generated. Immediate after, machine code gets executed.
Modern JS engine initially creates the unoptimized version of machine code just so that it gets start executing as fast as possible. In background, this machine code is being optimized and recompiled during already running program execution. This can be done multiple times and after each optimization, unoptimized code gets swapped with optimized machine code and without ever stopping execution of course. This process makes modern engines like V8 so fast.
All this parsing, compilation and optimization happens in special threads inside the engine that we can’t access from our code.
A JavaScript engine is a program or software component that executes JavaScript code. It is responsible for interpreting and executing JavaScript code, and typically powers web browsers, as well as server-side environments like Node.js.
Some popular JavaScript engines include V8 (used in Google Chrome and Node.js), SpiderMonkey (used in Firefox), and Chakra (used in Microsoft Edge and Internet Explorer) and many more. As long as they follow the standard set by the ECMAScript standards, anyone can write a JS engine.
Each JavaScript engine may have different performance characteristics and features, but they all aim to provide a fast and efficient environment for executing JavaScript code.
JavaScript runtime is the environment where JavaScript code is executed. It provides the necessary tools and services to execute JavaScript code, such as a memory heap for storing variables and objects, a call stack for tracking the execution of functions, and an event loop for handling asynchronous events.
Think of the JS runtime environment as a big container. Within the big container are other smaller containers. As the JS engine parses the code it starts putting pieces of it into different containers. And of course, heart of JS runtime environment is always JS engine.
The most common JavaScript runtime is the web browser, which provides a JavaScript engine (such as V8 in Chrome) along with the necessary APIs for interacting with the browser environment, such as the Document Object Model (DOM) and Web APIs.
Node.js is another popular JavaScript runtime that allows JavaScript to be executed outside of the browser, such as on a server. It includes a JavaScript engine (also V8), along with additional modules and APIs for building server-side applications.
Other JavaScript runtime also exists, such as in-game engines that allow JavaScript to be used for game scripting, or desktop applications that use JavaScript as a scripting language.
JavaScript is a single threaded language which means that only one set of instructions can be executed at a time. There is only one call stack. Except behind the scenes, we do not only have the JS Engine but also there is the JS Runtime. The runtime is the whole package including all the tools, the engine is responsible of composing JS.
The browser comes with the web API which is not native to JS. The web API can take care of asynchronous actions. You can access the web API by using methods on the window object.
An Execution Context is a conceptual structure that holds information about the environment in which the current code is being executed. The execution context includes information such as the value of the this keyword, the current scope chain, and any variables and functions that are currently in scope.
Execution context has three types:
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Global Execution Context (GEC): This is the default execution context in which JS code start its execution when the file first loads in the browser. All the global code (top level code) i.e. code which is not inside any function or object is executed inside the global execution context. GEC cannot be more than one because only one global environment is possible for JS code execution as the JS engine is single threaded.
-
Functional Execution Context (FEC): It is defined as the context created by the JS engine whenever it finds any function call. Each function has its own execution context. It can be more than one. Functional execution context has access to all the code of the global execution context though vice versa is not applicable. While executing the global execution context code, if JS engine finds a function call, it creates a new functional execution context for that function. In the browser context, if the code is executing in strict mode value of
thisisundefinedelse it iswindowobject in the function execution context. -
Eval: Execution context inside
evalfunction.
JavaScript engine creates the execution context in the following two stages:
- Creation Phase
- Execution Phase
Creation phase is the phase in which the JS engine has called a function, but its execution has not started. In the creation phase, JS engine is in the compilation phase and it just scans over the function code to compile the code, it doesn’t execute any code. In the creation phase, JS engine performs the following task:
-
Creates the Activation object or the Variable object: Activation object is a special object in JS which contain all the variables, function arguments and inner functions declaration information. As activation object is a special object it does not have the
dunder protoproperty. Activation object or variable object contains the argument object which has details about the arguments of the function. -
Creates the scope chain: Once the activation object gets created, the JS engine initializes the scope chain which is a list of all the variables objects inside which the current function exists. This also includes the variable object of the global execution context. Scope chain also contains the current function variable object.
-
Determines the value of
this: After the scope chain, the JavaScript engine initializes the value ofthis.
Note - Execution context belonging to Arrow function do not get their own Argument keywords nor do they get ‘this’ keyword. Instead they can use the argument objects and this keyword from their closest regular function parent.
Let’s simulate creation phase for code written below. So, we will have one global context and 2 function context in this example. In global context, we will have ‘name’ and ‘x’ variable and ‘first’ and ‘second’ function. Technically, none of the value will be known during creation phase rather it will be known during execution phase, but for understanding purpose, values are mentioned in below screenshot.
Now the question is how engine will keep the track of the order in which functions were called and how will it know where it currently is in the execution?
The answer is Call Stack.
Some points:
- Firstly the global execution will get placed in stack as soon as the execution started.
- If there is any function call found, it will get placed on top of global execution context in call stack.
- Once all the functions are stacked as per their calling priority (lastly called function will be on top in call stack), execution of function will start from the top one being executed first and so on.
- Once all the functions will get executed, global execution context will remain there in call stack until we close the browser tab or browser window.
The execution phase is the second phase in the life cycle of an execution context. During the execution phase, the JavaScript engine executes the code that was parsed and processed in the creation phase.
During the execution phase, the following actions take place:
-
Variable assignments: Any variable values that were not initialized during the creation phase are assigned values during the execution phase.
-
Function calls: If the code being executed includes function calls, a new execution context is created for each function call, and the same process of creation, execution, and cleanup is followed for each of those execution contexts.
-
Code execution: The JavaScript engine executes the code line by line, following the sequence of operations defined in the code.
-
Scope resolution: As the code is executed, the JavaScript engine resolves variable references by looking up the variable in the current scope chain. If the variable is not found in the current scope chain, the engine will search the outer scope chain until the variable is found or the global scope is reached.
-
Exception handling: If an exception is thrown during code execution, the engine will catch the exception and follow the appropriate exception handling procedures.
Once the execution phase is complete, the JavaScript engine moves to the cleanup phase, where it frees up memory and removes the execution context from the call stack.
Readings:
-
How JavaScript Works & Execution Context - Namaste JavaScript
-
How JavaScript Code is executed? & Call Stack - Namaste JavaScript
Essentially, you can split the code you write into these two pieces:
-
The JavaScript Language: Understands core syntax (
let,constetc) but does NOT know anything about the DOM for instance. -
Browser APIs: Not responsible for understanding your code but instead responsible for exposing APIs like the DOM API which you can use from inside your script code.
The JavaScript language is advanced by the ECMA International Technical Committee 39 (TC39), which is a group that's part of the ECMA organization. It's responsible for adding new features to the JavaScript language itself. For example, in the past, it was responsible for adding let and const.
Learn more about TC39 here: https://tc39.es/
Explore the current proposals that are being discussed by that group, features that potentially make it into the core JavaScript language in the future: https://github.com/tc39/proposals
IMPORTANT: Just because a feature becomes part of the language does NOT mean that all JavaScript engines immediately support that feature. Of course the people developing the engines are doing their best to provide support as soon as possible but that process simply also takes time.
On the other hand, engine vendors also sometimes start supporting certain features BEFORE TC39 made a feature an official part of JavaScript. Because in the end, it's of course totally up to the people working on the engines to decide which syntax their JS engine understands.
Browser APIs also are standardized because the different browser vendors (Google for Chrome, Microsoft for Edge etc.) of course want to (roughly) provide feature parity and similar APIs. It wouldn't be a great developer experience if you had different functions which you need to call to make your scripts work in different browsers. Although, in the past, this was pretty normal.
Nowadays, thankfully, this is getting way better because there also is a working group that works on browser APIs - so that different features and APIs in different browsers are avoided as good as possible.
That working group has the name WHATWG and you can learn more about it here: https://whatwg.org/.
If you're interested in learning more about the APIs that were or are "managed" by this group, you can check this site: https://spec.whatwg.org/
This working group is not related to TC39!
In JavaScript, values can be categorized into two types: primitive values and reference values.
Primitive values are values that are immutable (cannot be changed), and are copied by value. There are 6 primitive types in JavaScript:
- undefined
- null
- boolean
- number
- string
- symbol
Example:
let a = 10;
let b = a; // value of 'a' is copied to 'b'
a = 20; // 'a' is changed, but 'b' is still 10
console.log(a); // 20
console.log(b); // 10Reference values, on the other hand, are values that are mutable (can be changed), and are copied by reference. Reference values are objects, arrays, and functions.
let obj1 = { name: "John" };
let obj2 = obj1; // reference of 'obj1' is copied to 'obj2'
obj1.name = "Jane"; // 'obj1' and 'obj2' both refer to the same object
console.log(obj1.name); // "Jane"
console.log(obj2.name); // "Jane"In the above example, when the property of name is changed on the obj1, it also changes on the obj2 because they both refer to the same object in memory.
-
Any variable name is basically an identifier which points to a memory address where the value is actually stored. An identifier never contains value. So, remember it!!
-
Although we have defined
friendobject asconst, but we are able to change the age attribute of it. This is because memory address offriendin stack contains reference to memory address in heap and the value of its attributes. -
Primitive types are basically stored in execution context (of function, global or regular) which lives in call stack. In simple words, primitive types are stored in call stack. However, reference types or objects are stored in heap memory.
Readings:
Garbage collection is the process of automatically managing memory in a programming language, such as JavaScript. In JavaScript, memory is allocated when objects are created and freed up automatically when they are no longer referenced. The garbage collector is responsible for identifying and removing objects that are no longer being used by the program, thus freeing up memory for other objects.
JavaScript uses a technique called "mark and sweep" to perform garbage collection. This technique involves the following steps:
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Marking: The garbage collector starts from a set of roots, which are typically global objects or objects referenced from the program's stack. It then traverses the object graph and marks all objects that are still reachable.
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Sweeping: The garbage collector then goes through the memory heap and frees up all objects that are not marked as reachable.
There are different algorithms used for garbage collection, such as reference counting, which counts the number of references to an object and frees it up when the reference count reaches zero, or generational collection, which focuses on objects that are created recently and are likely to be garbage.
Memory management in JavaScript is handled automatically by the garbage collector. However, it's important to understand how the garbage collector works and how to avoid memory leaks in order to write efficient and performant code. Some best practices to avoid memory leaks in JavaScript include:
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Use the
letandconstkeywords to define variables, as they have a block scope and are automatically garbage collected when they go out of scope. -
Use event listeners wisely, and remember to remove them when they are no longer needed to avoid retaining references to objects that are no longer used.
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Avoid circular references between objects, as they can prevent the garbage collector from freeing up memory.
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Use
setTimeoutorsetIntervalwith care, as they can cause memory leaks if not used properly. It's important to clear these timers when they are no longer needed.
By following these best practices, you can ensure that your JavaScript code is efficient and free from memory leaks.
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